Jan 158 min read

Overview - World War 1: The War to End All Wars

Updated: May 10

Introduction

Assassination of Archduke Fran Ferdinand – Smithsonian Magazine [1]

World War 1 was the first conflict involving countries from across the globe, including Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The conflict erupted in the summer of 1914 and continued through 1918. The Great War, also known as the "War to End All Wars," was a significant turning point in military history. The war had substantial changes to the traditional European conflict due to it being a war of trenches, machine guns, tanks, and chemical warfare, all causing immense suffering for soldiers on the front lines. The scale led to unprecedented destruction and loss of life. The battlefields were primarily in Europe between the Central Powers and the Allies. The Central Powers comprised Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. The United Kingdom, France, Russia, and the United States formed the Allies.

World War I was full of complex factors. Archduke Franz Ferdinand's assassination is what most people are under the impression triggered the war. Yet the causes are more profound. The balance of power in Europe, aggressive nationalism, imperialism, and militarism created a volatile atmosphere where a single event triggered a chain reaction leading to a global inferno. Other factors, from secret treaties and alliances to poor decisions by world leaders, continued these complexities throughout the war and its aftermath.

The United States' role was that of a nation transitioning from a neutral observer to a critical player. Its contributions tipped the balance in favor of the Allies. The consequences led to the redrawing of maps, the collapse of empires, and the groundwork for future conflicts, ultimately shaping the 20th century.

The road to war

Diplomatic movements and long-running rivalries are among the factors that characterized the delicate equilibrium of European power. This geopolitical ballet was the "balance of power," devised to prevent any nation from gaining dominance and maintaining a balance. Nationalism and territorial ambitions continually tested this equilibrium. Nationalism fostered unity within individual countries, often escalating into aggressive competitions among nations, each vying for supremacy. Global competition for overseas territories and resources due to centuries of imperialistic ambitions among the European powers. This imperialistic fervor increased friction not just in the homeland but across the world.

The arms race and the Triple Entente and Triple Alliance further heightened hostilities that ultimately ungirded the belief in the necessity of military strength to safeguard national interests, the development of military institutions, and the adoption of aggressive foreign policies. From this came suspicion, rivalry, tension, and a metaphorical European powder keg. In 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand's assassination in Sarajevo acted as the spark that ignited that powder, propelling the globe into conflict.

The conflict expanded the embrace of nationalism across Europe, fostering unity within individual nations and simultaneously sparking aggressive rivalries. This intense national pride and the rise of militarism manifested in an arms race that built formidable military forces and technological advances that had never been seen before. The belief that the war would be short was ignoring all the new technology that would lead to a nightmare that is still hard to capture with adequate words.

Political influence on the onset and conduct of the war

Politics around alliances were decisive and instigated two competing forces. The first was the Triple Entente, which included France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and later the United States. The other was the Triple Alliance, comprised of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. These alliances emerged in response to perceived threats caused by the military build-up and the delicate balance of power in Europe at the time. These alliances had the inverse effect intended, often falling short of acting as a deterrent. They exacerbated tensions, creating a precarious situation where a localized dispute could rapidly escalate into a full-scale war. As events unfolded, the alliances became conduits of far-reaching consequences.

As Clausewitz would state, “War is not merely a political act, but also a real political instrument, a continuation of political commerce, a carrying out of the same by other means,”[2] the decisions made by key leaders had profound implications for the direction of the war. King George V and Tsar Nicholas II were confronted with pivotal choices. Influenced by a complex military strategy, diplomatic considerations, and domestic politics, these decisions held massive consequences. Choices such as mobilization of troops, declarations of war, or pursuit of peace were weighty matters that reverberated through the lives of millions.

America's involvement in World War I

The United States adhered to a policy of neutrality at the commencement of World War I, driven by a commitment to focus on domestic priorities rather than becoming entwined in issues of Europe. President Woodrow Wilson won his re-election bid in 1916. He ran with the slogan, "He kept us out of war,"[3] because he maintained neutrality as the tensions slowly escalated. Sustaining neutrality became difficult as German U-boats unleashed unrestricted submarine warfare, imperiling both American lives and economic interests. Loss of American lives with the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915, coupled with subsequent attacks on merchant ships, intensified anti-German sentiments within the U.S. Yet they were not enough to end the United States view of Isolationism.

The revelation of the Zimmermann Telegram in 1917 was pivotal for the United States. The British intelligence intercepted the telegram and disclosed the secret proposal from Germany to Mexico. In the telegram, Germany suggested a military alliance between them and Mexico against the United States. This revelation incited public outrage and strained diplomatic relations. "President Wilson urged Congress to declare war on Germany on April 2, 1917, as he was confronted with a desire to create a world safe for democracy."[4] Marking a profound shift in U.S. foreign policy and its global affairs.

The United States promptly mobilized its forces to contribute significantly to the Allied effort. The Selective Service Act of 1917 facilitated the conscription of millions of American men into military service. The American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) played a crucial role in several critical battles. The most extensive U.S. military operation occurred in 1918 and involved over a million troops. The successful execution of this offensive and the United States overarching contribution of forces assisted the Allies in breaking the stalemate on the Western Front.

Significant Battles of World War I

First photo of a tank - Imperial War Museum

Battle of the Somme

The Battle of the Somme occurred from July 1 to November 18, 1916. This joint British and French offensive on the Western Front shatters the prolonged stalemate and relieves pressure on the French forces at Verdun. The initial phase saw staggering casualties, with the first day still being one of the bloodiest in military history. The battle ultimately achieved a profound impact by diverting German resources and introducing a significant innovation in warfare—the first widespread use of tanks.

Battle of Verdun

The Battle of Verdun stretched from February 21 to December 18, 1916. German forces sought to "bleed France white" by capturing the fortress city. The French were led by General Philippe Petain, who successfully defended Verdun at an immense cost. The battle became a symbol of French determination and resilience, showcasing the endurance of soldiers amid intense warfare. Verdun's enduring significance lies in highlighting the sacrifices made and the unwavering spirit of the French forces.

Battle of Jutland

The only significant naval engagement of the war was the Battle of Jutland from May 31 to June 1, 1916. The British Royal Navy's Grand Fleet encountered the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet. The battle was inconclusive but resulted in substantial losses on both sides. For the remainder of the war, the Royal Navy maintained naval supremacy, effectively limiting German surface fleet operations.

Battle of Passchendaele

Better known as the Third Battle of Ypres. The protracted battle unfolded from July 31 to November 10, 1917. Under Sir Douglas Haig's command, the British forces sought to capture Passchendaele Ridge. Intense trench warfare and relentless rainfall turned the battlefield into a muddy quagmire. The Allies endured significant casualties in their ultimate success of capturing Passchendaele.

Meuse-Argonne Offensive

US Army in 1918 - Trench Warfare — US Army in 1918 [6]

Launched on September 26, 1918, the Meuse-Argonne Offensive was the most significant American operation. General John J. Pershing led the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF). He aimed to breach the German lines along the Western Front. The AEF's relentless advances were pivotal in securing the eventual Allied victory. This offensive began the slow demise of the Central Powers.

Short-Term and Long-Term Results

The Treaty of Versailles ceremony was held on November 11, 1919. This Armistice marks the official conclusion of World War I. The repercussions would resonate far beyond that date. It assigned sole responsibility for the war to the German government and its allies, demanding massive reparations, territorial concessions, and disarmament. This punitive approach fueled resentment and plunged Germany into economic instability. The weight of reparations contributed to hardships that paved the way for political upheaval, laying the groundwork for the ascent of Adolf Hitler. The Treaty of Versailles is harshly criticized for significantly contributing to future conflicts rather than peace.

The geopolitical landscape of Europe underwent a profound transformation due to the treaty. It dismantled empires, redrawing borders and giving rise to new nations while altering existing ones. The disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires led to the emergence of independent states like Austria, Hungary, Turkey, and various Eastern European nations. While these adjustments aimed to reflect national self-government, they stirred ethnic tensions and territorial disputes, some of which had century-long disputes behind them. The redrawing of maps was intended to address certain historical injustices. Instead, it contributed to complexities that would persist well into the 21st century.

The League of Nations came from a noble aspiration that an international organization would prevent future conflicts using diplomacy instead of military might. The absence of major powers and no substantial authority to enforce decisions and address emerging threats became apparent from the onset. It needed to be more effective in meeting its missions. These issues continued as the League of Nations couldn’t prevent World War II. Its failures underscored the challenges of maintaining peace and stability through an international organization.

Europe was left grappling with economic, social, and political impacts. Enormous debts, reconstruction challenges, and reparations burdened the Central Powers' economies and, on a grander scale, Germany. The impact of the war on the collective psyche of Europe was profound. The generation was scared from the trauma so much that the Allies, such as Britain and France, were nervous to oppose Hitler and chose appeasement to avoid conflict. The war's conclusion triggered revolutions, the collapse of monarchies, and the establishment of new governments in many countries. These economic hardships and political instability set the stage for the rise of authoritarian regimes that contributed to a tumultuous interwar period and led to the next world conflict.

Conclusion

World War I was far from being the war to end all wars. It set the stage for a tumultuous first half of the 20th century. The significant battles shaped the war's trajectory, from the grueling Battle of the Somme to the symbolic Battle of Verdun. The conflict expanded the embrace of nationalism, fostering unity and sparking aggressive rivalries. The intricate alliance systems and political decisions made by key leaders further heightened tensions. The lessons learned from this global conflagration would echo through the decades, and most of the issues would only be resolved after the following World War and beyond.

Footnotes

[1] A Contemporary Painting, April 22, 2013, Smithsonian Magazine, April 22, 2013, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/curses-archduke-franz-ferdinand-and-his-astounding-death-car-27381052/.

[2] Carl von Clausewitz, “Carl von Clausewitz on War - MCU,” Marine Corps University, accessed November 19, 2023, https://www.usmcu.edu/Portals/218/EWS%20On%20War%20Reading%20Book%201%20Ch%201%20Ch%202.pdf, 87.

[3] Admin, “Election: 1916 - President Wilson House,” President Wilson House - Historic Site & Gardens, January 13, 2021, https://woodrowwilsonhouse.org/election-1916/.

[4] “Joint Address to Congress Leading to a Declaration of War against Germany (1917).” National Archives and Records Administration. Accessed November 19, 2023. https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/address-to-congress-declaration-of-war-against-germany.

[5]The First Photo of a Tank, Voices of the First World War: Tanks On The Somme (Imperial War Museum), accessed November 19, 2023, https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/voices-of-the-first-world-war-tanks-on-the-somme.

[6] Victory Corps. October 21, 2008. Army Army. https://www.army.mil/article/13448/victory_corps_played_vital_role_in_meuse_argonne_offensive_of_world_war_i.